Cover image – © National Trust
The 1400s were a fierce time in England’s history, with wars breaking out, fighting amongst families, and constant battles for the throne. Conflict was driven by the feuds that were born on the battlefields of The Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453), as well as the lack of stability and promise from the current monarch, King Henry VI.
During this period of unrest, it was no coincidence that another would want to take a chance at wearing the crown and attempt to repair a crumbling kingdom. However, things would not be so easy for Richard of York.
This article will explore the cause of the war that ensued, as well as how this is portrayed in popular media, such as The White Queen. It will delve into the people and politics that shaped both land and monarchy and highlight the trigger points for the Wars of the Roses.
. . .
A main player in the cause of this famed war was Henry VI, who was born in December 1421 to parents Catherine of Valois and King Henry V of England.
Young Henry’s father, King Henry V, was famed for his military prowess and, most notably, the conquering of France during a period of conflict known as The Hundred Years’ War. For context, this had been a period where men were respected for their courage and fighting ability, and Henry V was considered a brutal but effective ruler; to some, an ideal king. Upon the birth of his son, there is little doubt that Henry V was proud to have an heir to carry on his bloodline and uphold his esteemed legacy.
However, due to his father’s premature death in 1422, Henry VI inherited the crown before his first birthday, meaning that a regent helped to rule for many years until the young king came of age. Eventually, King Henry VI’s coronation took place in Westminster Abbey on 6th November 1429 when he was just eight years old {1}, whereby he became the youngest king of England ever to ascend the throne {2}.
Despite being a child, it was obvious that the young king was nothing like his late father… not that he had been dealt much of a chance of success in the first place.
Had Henry VI been as strong and as fierce, it is likely that he would still have struggled to maintain order within the kingdom of England. According to 16th Century historian, Raphael Holinshed, whilst the wars between England and France ceased by occasion of truce, the ‘minds of men were not so quiet’, and instead were ‘bent to malicious revenge’ against their own countrymen {3}. In plain terms, despite the war in France being over, tensions were still at an all-time high. Fighting continued without much structure, English territory in France was lost, and many felt that their efforts in the war had been for nothing.
As years went by, it became obvious that King Henry VI could not uphold his father’s legacy. Known for being mild and ‘too soft’ for governor of the kingdom {3}, Henry’s rule was weak and did little to repair the rifts that were splitting England apart. In addition, his mental stability was brought into question on several occasions, leaving the crown’s power and authority to quarrelsome court nobles {4} and Henry’s unpopular French wife, Queen Margaret of Anjou.
At this point, if you’ve seen The White Queen, you’ll know exactly who I’m talking about!
During this troublesome time, Henry VI’s cousin, Richard Plantagenet, the Duke of York, had become increasingly popular across the kingdom. Richard secretly began to ‘allure’ his friends of the nobility, declaring to them that he had a right to the crown, due to the fact that he was a direct descendant of King Edward III. According to historians, Richard ‘perceived the king to be no ruler’ and accused Queen Margaret of ruling in the king's stead {3}. These beliefs were fundamental in Richard’s drive to fight for the throne, as he did not think that the current king was fit to rule, regardless of his birthright.
Navigating complex politics and keeping his goals secret, Richard was able to gain support from both nobles and the lesser folk. Unlike Henry, Richard had been tried and tested in battle and was known as a noble warrior. Alongside his legitimate claims to the throne, to some, he seemed like the perfect candidate for a king.
Between April and July of 1450, a rebellion arose in the South East of England by those who favoured the Duke of York and were unhappy with the government and king’s rule. In medieval times, protests were often led by sword and shield rather than the banners and chants of the present day, and the king’s council were not too happy to hear of this force moving closer and closer to London.
Despite ending in bloodshed as the people of London and the king’s forces fought back, this revolt was an obvious precursor to the Wars of the Roses and succeeded in driving a wedge between the houses of Lancaster and Plantagenet.
Following this rebellion, historians of the time note that Richard once again met with several close friends and allies, whereby he decided to raise an army under the pretext to ‘remove diverse counsellors’ who advised the king, and demand a better government for the people {3}, without the men who ‘lost’ France. This was quite a sore subject in the mid-1400s, as many English men had fought and died to control this land which had now been almost fully relinquished by the king.
Richard’s army may have been as large as 10,000 men, who marched through Wales, then towards London before crossing the river Thames and towards Kent. As you may imagine, King Henry and his advisors were, once again, not thrilled at the prospect of another rebellion against their reign.
Once Richard’s army had settled in Kent, setting up camp and preparing for battle, Henry’s forces went to meet them. Choosing negotiation first, Henry sent several of his advisors (one of these being Richard Woodville, who you may also recognise from The White Queen!) to speak with Richard of York, to find out the reason for this ‘commotion’ and to, hopefully, come to an agreement to end it.
According to the historian Raphael Holinshed, Richard stated that his intent was to remove certain ‘evil’ disposed persons from the king’s council, ‘blood suckers’ of the nobility, and oppressors of the poor people {3}. One of the men that Richard wanted to see removed was the Duke of Somerset, as these two really didn’t get on! Surprisingly, Henry agreed to Richard’s terms to pacify him and his men, in the hope of avoiding further bloodshed.
This did work for a time, with Richard coming to the king and asking for forgiveness, but it did not take long for more fuel to be added to the fire. In 1452, upon realising that the Duke of Somerset had not relinquished his powers and remained at the king’s side, Richard accused him of multiple crimes, the highest of which being treason. Unsurprisingly, the Duke of Somerset objected to this and claimed that Richard was guilty of treason instead, taking him as prisoner and parading him through London.
Imagine if these two had simply settled their differences over a pint of ale!
By 1453, it is said that Henry VI suffered a catastrophic mental breakdown and became completely unresponsive, unable to speak, and had to be led from room to room {4}, most likely brought on by news that English forces in Gascony, France, had been defeated. This practically meant that England’s rule in France was no more, which would have been a devastating blow to the king’s court, as well as those who had fought to gain the land. Whilst the king’s council tried to carry on as if nothing were amiss, they eventually had to admit defeat, calling for a meeting amongst the English nobles to decide what should be done about the king. Despite the Duke of Somerset’s attempts at excluding him, Richard of York was in attendance.
After a long debate and consultation, it was decided that Richard would become Protector of the Realm and regent of the land in Henry’s stead. Can you guess what Richard did next? … Had the Duke of Somerset arrested, of course! He was promptly sent to the Tower of London, the most famous fortress and prison of the time.
Richard enjoyed several years of rule until King Henry eventually ‘recovered’, whereby he dismissed his cousin and began to reverse many of the actions he had taken while in power, including sanctioning the release of the Duke of Somerset.
Obviously, this did not sit well with many of the court nobles, and especially not with Richard, who had been snubbed and cast aside. Once again, Richard raised an army to face Henry. With much larger and well-equipped forces, Richard’s army outnumbered Henry’s significantly.
The First Battle of St Albans took place on 22 May 1455, marking the official beginning of the Wars of the Roses.
During this battle, many of the king's nobles (including the Duke of Somerset) were killed or wounded, with Henry VI himself captured by Richard and the York forces. Richard took the king back to London and promptly had his title of Protector of the Realm reinstated. However, once again, whilst this uneasy peace lasted for some time, it was Queen Margaret who eventually took the Duke of Somerset’s place and began to scheme and control the king.
Following several long years of political intrigue, disputes, and attempts at gaining power, tensions came to a head at the Battle of Wakefield in 1460. With King Henry VI and Queen Margaret’s forces on one side and Richard of York’s on the other, this battle was all about the rightful claim to the throne. Obviously, Queen Margaret wanted to uphold her husband and young son’s legacy, whilst Richard had his own reasons for wanting to maintain power.
Sources claim that almost 3,000 of Richard’s men were killed in this battle, whereby they were caught ‘like fish in a net’ {3}. It would seem that Richard was not prepared for this battle, or made a huge error of judgment. Unfortunately for Richard, he was also killed on this day, either in battle or just after, leaving his wife and sons to face the repercussions. His head was set on a pike at the city of York’s gates by the Lancastrian forces, displaying him as a traitor to the crown.
Now, if you’ve seen The White Queen, here’s where things will start to get familiar…
In lieu of his father’s death, Richard’s son, Edward, inherited the Yorkist claim to the throne and swore to avenge his father. Several months after the Battle of Wakefield, Edward declared himself the rightful King of England, and followed this up by defeating the Lancaster forces at the Battle of Mortimer’s Cross in Herefordshire, with the help of his trusted advisor, Richard Neville - later known as the Kingmaker. Crowned as King Edward IV shortly after, Edward then met Lancastrian forces at the Battle of Towton - the bloodiest battle ever to take place on English soil {4}.
With estimated figures of the dead ranging from 9,000 to 20,000 {4}, it was the Lancastrian army - Henry VI and Margaret of Anjou’s forces - that took the largest hit. After this battle, Margaret fled to Scotland with her son, and Edward IV’s official coronation took place in June 1461.
Despite his initial failure to take the throne, Richard of York’s actions meant that his family were now the rulers of England, and would be for many years. Whilst ‘peace’ was never on the cards in medieval times and the Wars of the Roses raged on for many more years, Edward IV ruled until his death in 1483.
. . .
The White Queen
Released in 2013 as a new BBC historical drama, The White Queen is based on Philippa Gregory’s historical novel of the same name. I don’t know about you, but I absolutely fell in love with this series as soon as I saw it, and it was the first time I had felt drawn to a historical time period with the need to learn more.
The White Queen follows the young Elizabeth Woodville, who soon becomes the wife of King Edward IV and the Queen of England. The romance between Edward and Elizabeth in the series is one of the leading themes, but - surprisingly - this isn’t too far from the truth, as historic records state that the king fell for Elizabeth’s beauty and asked her to marry him without any council {3}.
Edward and Elizabeth’s life is not portrayed as being easy, and the pair face threats from almost every angle throughout their lives. Whilst The White Queen is fictional and is only based on historical events, it provides a fantastic take on the private lives of the York dynasty, focusing on the love, hate, friendship and betrayal that may well have taken place in real life.
Episode 1 of The White Queen begins in 1464 and it is during this episode that, following their marriage, Edward has to leave Elizabeth to go to battle. Whilst it is not clarified in the series, we can presume that this is the Battle of Hexham which took place on 15 May 1464. This battle was a decisive victory for Edward and the York forces, with the Lancastrian resistance being defeated and many of its leaders executed. Henry VI fled, having ‘lost his wits’ again, and Edward’s reign seemed stronger than ever.
Throughout the series, between Edward and Elizabeth’s love story, we can see how the war for power rages on, with battles sparking up here and there, and conflict between the family itself when Edward’s brothers decide that they may be better suited for the throne. Of course, it is no coincidence that this occurs following Edward’s marriage. The young king broke promises when he decided to marry Elizabeth, making those in his council - primarily Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick - seem the fool, having already arranged a marriage of alliance between Edward and a French noblewoman.
Whilst the York forces do eventually end up capturing and killing King Henry VI, putting an end to his reign and those who support him, there are constant fights and disagreements between them, splitting the court apart as Edward’s brothers and Richard Neville cling to power.
Meanwhile, The White Queen also portrays another side to the story, whereby we see Margaret Beaufort’s struggles with her young son, Henry. (Yes, another Henry!). Margaret is convinced, and sometimes appears obsessed, that her son will one day be crowned king. The young Henry had royal blood, being related to both King Edward III and Henry VI directly, and whilst it was no secret that this was his heritage, he was not perceived to be a threat as he was removed from his mother’s care from a young age.
As the series progresses, we see Edward IV’s life and death, the possible death of his sons (the ongoing mystery of the princes in the tower!), and his brother Richard III’s rule which is eventually met by Henry VII’s uprising. Of course, Margaret’s character was right all along, and her son became King of England in 1485, the first monarch of the House of Tudor.
Due to the fact that this series has only 10 episodes, spanning roughly 10 hours long, and covers twenty years of history, it is inevitable that some key events from the period are missed or skipped over. Not only does the series see the age of characters skip forward in time, but some minor skirmishes, uprisings and battles are passed over for the sake of the plot and narrative timeline. For example, in Episode 2, we are briefly shown a rebellion which took place between the spring and early summer of 1469. Despite this rebellion lasting several months, we are only shown a brief hint of conflict, whereby King Edward is captured and held at Middleham Castle. Alongside this, we also hear that Queen Elizabeth’s father and brother have been executed, without being shown the lengthy build-up to their untimely death.
Occasionally, The White Queen also ‘fills in the gaps’ of history and makes its own assumptions on how certain events may have played out. An example of this is in the instance of Henry VI’s death, as historians remain unsure on who or what caused this. However, in Episode 5, the series depicts this clearly, with Edward and his brothers killing Henry as he sleeps. In addition, despite the disappearance of Edward’s sons (the princes in the tower) remaining a mystery to this day, in The White Queen it is a main plot point, where Elizabeth purposely swaps her eldest son for another boy and Anne, Richard III’s wife, plots to have them killed.
Of course, many of these additions and exclusions of history do add to the plot and narrative in some way, making it easier for characters to justify their motives and for the story to continue on (i.e., in the next show, The White Princess). Series’ such as this are a great tool in learning and understanding history, but it is important to note that it would be impossible to know every detail of what happened in the past, let alone portray this in ten hours' worth of film.
The White Queen covers a huge timeline of the Wars of the Roses and, whilst events are occasionally missed or altered due to time skips and dramatisation, on the whole, it is an excellent display and performance of the key moments of this time period. Whilst the dialogue and scenes including the private life of historical figures are fictional, the series manages to capture the ‘humanness’ of these people and the struggles they face, despite being several hundred years before modern times.
Overall, The White Queen depicts the Wars of the Roses as a tragic, deceitful, quarrelsome and brutal period, but also demonstrates that love, friendship and loyalty were a key part of people's lives that drove them to fight for what they believed in. However, at its centre, it illustrates that a lust for power is often the cause of conflict, which continues on for many years to come.
References:
{1} Westminster Abbey, 2023. westminster-abbey.org
{2} Cannon, J. A Dictionary of British History, 2009. Oxforreference.com
{3} Holinshed, R. Chronicles, 1586.
{4} Wikipedia. Wars of the Roses. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses
Excellent reading